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WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW
Definitions of Mental defectiveness: Statistical Infrequency, Deviation from Social Norms, Failure to Function Adequately, Deviance from Ideal Mental Wellness. Life Approach to OCD: Characteristics, Genetic Possibility, Nervous theory, Drugs. Cognitive Access to Depression: Characteristics, Beck's Negative Triad, Ellis's ABC Model, CBT. Behavioral Approach to Phobias: Characteristics, Two-Process Manakin, Systematic Desensitisation, Flooding.
What do the examiners look for?
- Accurate and elaborated cognition
- Clear, orderly and focused answers
- Effective use of language (use the "technical terms")
In covering questions, examiners look for "strong application to the scenario" which means that you need to describe the hypothesis and explicate the scenario using the theory qualification the links between the two very clear. If in that respect is many than one case-by-case in the scenario you mustiness mention all of the characters to nettle the top band.
Difference between AS and A level answers
The descriptions follow the same criteria; however you have to use the issues and debates efficaciously in your answers. "Effectively" means that it needs to be clearly linked and explained in the context of the answer.
Read the model answers to let a clearer idea of what is needed.
Definitions of Irregularity
Applied mathematics Infrequency
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Under this definition of mental defectiveness, a person's trait, thinking or behavior is classified as perverted if it is rare or statistically unusual. With this definition it is necessary to be sunshiny about how rare a trait or behavior needs to embody before we class it as abnormal
For instance one Crataegus oxycantha state that an individualist WHO has an I.Q. below or above the average level of IQ in society is abnormal. However this definition evidently has limitations, it fails to acknowledge the desirability of the particular behavior. Exit back to the instance, soul WHO has an Intelligence quotient level higher up the normal ordinary wouldn't necessarily cost seen as abnormal, rather to the contrary they would be highly regarded for their intelligence. This definition also implies that the presence of abnormal behavior in people should be rare or statistically unusual, which is not the case. Instead, any specific abnormal behavior may be fantastical, but IT is non unusual for masses to exhibit more or less take shape of protracted abnormal behavior at some point in their lives. Strengths This definition tin provide an objective way, based connected information, to define abnormal condition if an agreed rationalise-off point can be identified. No value judgements are made –Homosexuality was defined as a mental perturb under early versions of the diagnostic criteria in use past psychiatrists, would not be seen as 'wrong' but merely As less patronize than heterosexuality. Limitations Even so, this definition fails to recognise between desirable and undesirable behavior. Statistically tongued, many very talented individuals could exist categorized A 'abnormal' exploitation this definition. The utilisation of the term 'atypical' in this context would not be right. More rare behaviors or characteristics (e.g. left handedness) have no bearing on N or abnormality. Close to characteristics are regarded Eastern Samoa abnormal even though they are quite common. Depression may affect 27% of elderly people (NIMH, 2001). This would make it coarse but that does non mean it isn't a problem Deviation from philosophical theory mental wellness suggests that we delimit rational illness by looking at the absence of signs of physical health (Jahoda). A person's thinking or behavior is restricted as supernormal if it violates the (unwritten) rules more or less what is expected or acceptable behavior in a particular social group. Their behavior may be mysterious to others or make others feel threatened or uncomfortable. Social behavior varies markedly when unusual cultures are compared. For example, it is common in Southern Europe to stand much closer to strangers than in the UK. Voice pitch and loudness, touching, direction of gaze and received subjects for discussion take all been found to motley between cultures. With this definition, information technology is necessary to consider: (i) The degree to which a norm is violated, the grandness of that average and the value connected by the elite group grouping to different sorts of violation. (ii) E.g. is the violation rude, type, abnormal or criminal? Strength Comprehensive – Covers a broad range of criteria, most for which why person would seek help from mental health services operating room be referred for help – Makes it a good tool for thought about cognition health. This defintion gives a social dimension to the idea of abnormality, which offers an alternative to the 'laid up in the head' unshared. Limitations Social norms can motley from culture to culture. This means that what is considered normal in one culture may be considered abnormal in another. This definition of abnormality is an example of cultural relativism. Unrealistic – About populate fare not fit entirely the ideals because few people experience personal growth whol the time – The criteria may be ideals instead than actualities. One limitation of the deviation of social group norms definition is that norms can vary over metre. This means that behaviour that would have been outlined as deviant in unmatched era is no longer characterized as vicarious in another. For example drink driving was at one time considered acceptable but is straightaway seen Eastern Samoa socially unacceptable whereas homosexuality has gone the past way. Until 1980 homosexuality was considered a psychological disorder by the World Health System (WHO) but today is advised acceptable. Unsuccessful person to function adequately (FFA) refers to freakishness that prevent the person from carrying out the range of behaviors that society would expect from them, such As getting out of bed each 24-hour interval, property down a job, and conducting successful relationships etc. Rosenhan & Seligman suggested seven criteria that are typical of FFA. These include person-to-person suffering (e.g. anxiousness or depression), erratically (displaying unannounced behaviors and loss of control) and unreason among others. The more features of personal dysfunction a mortal has the more they are well thought out abnormal. To assess how well individuals cope with everyday life, clinician use the Global Assessment of Functioning Scale (GAF), which rates their grade of social, activity and psychological functioning. Strengths The definition provides a practical checklist of seven criteria individuals rear end use to check their level of abnormality. It matches the sufferers' perceptions. As most hoi polloi seeking clinical help believe that they are distress from psychological problems that interfere with the ability to function properly, it supports the definition. Limitations FFA power not make up linked to abnormalcy but to other factors. Failure to keep a job may be callable to the economic situation not to psychological medicine. Cultural relativism is one limitation; what may be seen arsenic functioning adequately in one culture may not be adequate in another. This is credible to result in different diagnoses in different cultures. FFA is context underage; not eating potty be seen as unsatisfactory to function adequately simply prisoners on hunger strikes making a protestation can be seen in a different light. Jahoda recommended six criteria requisite for ideal mental wellness. An absence of any of these characteristics indicate individuals as being abnormal, put differently displaying deviation from ideal mental wellness. Limitations Difficulty of meeting every criteria, very few people would be able-bodied to act indeed and this suggests that very few populate are psychologically healthy. Cultural relativism: hese ideas are acculturation-bound, based on a Western idea of ideal lineament health, and should not be secondhand to judge other cultures. Diane is a 30-yr-retired businesswoman and if she does not let her own path she sometimes has a surlines tantrum. Recently, she attended her grandma's funeral and laughed during the prayers. When she talks to people she much stands very close to them, making them feel uncomfortable. Identify one definition of abnormality that could identify Diane's demeanour. Explain your choice. (4 marks) Provided by PsychLogic Revision Notes "Diana's behavior could equal defined atomic number 3 deviating from social norms. Although she is 30 she still has childish temper tantrums, she acted in a socially abnormal agency at her grandmother's funeral and she disobeys social norms nigh how close IT is appropriate to stand to hoi polloi. She is deviating from what is regarded as socially pattern, frankincense according to this definition she would be delimited as psychologically abnormal." 'The following article appeared in a magazine: Hoarding upset – A 'new' body part unwellness Just about of us are able to throw away the things we father't need happening a daily basis. Approximately 1 in 1000 masses, however, suffer from hoarding disorder, defined as 'a difficulty part with items and possessions, which leads to stern anxiety and extremum clutter that affects bread and butter or knead spaces'. Apart from 'divergence from ideal mental health', outline three definitions of abnormal condition. Relate to the clause above in your answer. (6 marks) Obsessive Psychoneurotic Disorder (OCD) is an anxiety unhinge characterised by intrusive and uncontrollable thoughts (i.e. obsessions), coupled with a need to perform specific acts repeatedly (i.e. compulsions). Mutual clinical obsessions are fear of taint (esp. being infected away germs), repetitive thoughts of violence (killing or harming someone), intimate obsessions and neurotic doubt. Compulsions are the behavioral responses intended to neutralize these obsessions. The to the highest degree average compulsions are cleaning, wash, checking, counting and moving. To the compulsive these behaviors oft seem to have magical qualities. If they are not performed exactly "something bad" will materialize. Or s O.C.D. sufferers will meticulously perform their rituals hundreds of times and feel extreme anxiety if prevented from carrying them out. Cleansing/washing rituals are to a greater extent rough-cut in women; checking rituals are more common in men. Psychological feature (What do you Call up?): Obsessions dominate ones thinking and are persistent and recurrent thoughts images Beaver State beliefs ingress the mind uninvited and which cannot be removed. At some tip during the course of the disorder the person has recognized that the obsessions or compulsions are excessive operating theater senseless. Warm-toned (How doh you FEEL?): Obsessive thoughts often lead to anxiety, worry and distress. Behavioural (How do you Deport?): Compulsions are the repetitive behavioral responses intended to neutralise these obsessions, often involving bolt applied rules. Most OCD sufferers recognise their compulsions as unreasonable, but believe something bad will happen if they don't perform that behavior. Steven describes how atomic number 2 feels when he is in a public place. I always have to look out for people who mightiness cost hostile. If I come into contact with people who look delirious, I think I might catch information technology and die. If someone starts to cough or sneeze then I have to get by and clean myself rapidly. Outline one cognitive characteristic of OCD and combined behavioral characteristic of OCD that can exist identified from the description provided by Steven. (2 Simon Marks) The approach can likewise be criticised for ignoring environmental influences. For instance, people are not born with OCD they might learn it from their surroundings through the process of definitive and operant conditioning. Strengths of this approach include its testability via neuroscience inquiry, evidence for genetic and neurotransmitter involvement in conditions such as schizophrenia. For instance, the Intropin hypothesis argues that raised levels of dopamine are related to symptoms of schizophrenia. Biological explanations are reductionist as they focalise on only one factor and at present our understanding of biochemistry is oversimplified. This means another psychological factors, such as cognitions are neglected. The biological explanations are also settled because they ignore the individual's ability to control their own behavior, which in turn may affect their biochemistry levels. Genetic science is the study of genes and inheritance. OCD seems to be a polygenic condition, where a number of genes are involved in its development. Fellowship and similitude studies advise the involvement of biological science factors. The prevalence of OCD in the random universe (about 2–3%) is the baseline against which the concordance rates can make up compared. The SERT cistron (5-hydroxytryptamine Transporter) appears to be mutated in individuals with OCD. The mutation causes an increment in transporter proteins at a nerve cell's membrane. This leads to an step-up in the reuptake of serotonin into the neuron which decreases the level of serotonin in the synapse. The COMT gene is a factor that regulates the function of Intropin. It appears that this cistron is also mutated in individuals with OCD. Yet this mutation causes the opposite effect as the SERT mutation discussed higher up. The mutated variation of the COMT gene found in OCD individuals causes a decrease in the COMT action and therefore a high level of dopamine. Carey and Gottesman (1981) found that isotropous twins showed a concordance rate of 87% for neurotic symptoms and features compared to 47% in fraternal twins. This difference suggests that familial factors are somewhat important. The higher concordance rate found for very twins Twins may be due to nurture as congruent twins twins are equiprobable to experience a more similar environment than class twins twins since they tend to be treated the same. Genes alone do not determine who will develop OCD—they only if create vulnerability. Thus, they are not a direct cause as other factors must trigger the disarray. Evidence for this is that the concordance rates are non 100%, which shows that OCD is due to an interaction of genetic and other factors. The OCD Crataegus oxycantha be culturally quite than genetically transmitted arsenic the class members may observe and imitate to each one other's behavior, as foretold by social learning theory. Alternatively, fellowship members might follow more weak to OCD because of the stressful environment rather than because of genetic factors. Neural mechanisms refer to regions of the brain, structures such as neurons and the neurotransmitters up to her neck in sending messages through the queasy system. One region of the mentality; the anterior cortex (PFC), is involved in decision qualification and the regulation of primitive aspects of our behavior. An over active PFC, causing an inflated control of primaeval impulses For good example, after a chaffer to the bathroom, your primal full to survive aside avoiding germs is brought to your attending. You may piss the decision to wash your hands to remove any harmful germs you may have encountered. Once you give birth performed the appropriate doings, the Perfluorocarbon reduces in activation and you stop washing your hands and go about your day. It has been suggested that if you have OCD, your PFC is over activated. This way the obsessions and compulsions continue, leading you to wash your hands time and time again. Abnormalities, or an imbalance in the neurotransmitter serotonin, could also be cognate to OCD. Weakened serotonin and excessive dopamine English hawthorn causal agent OCD. Serotonin is the chemical view to be involved in regulation mood. OCD patients have low levels of 5-hydroxytryptamine. Additionally Dopamine is abnormally high in individuals with OCD. High levels of dopamine have been thought to determine concentration. This Crataegus laevigata explain why OCD individuals have an inability to stop focussing on obsessive thoughts and insistent behaviors. The brains of OCD patients are organized and function other than from those of other people. Brain scans of OCD patients reliably show increased bodily process in the PFC (Salloway &A; Duffy, 2002). Whether devalued 5-hydroxytryptamine causes OCD is unknown. All that's acknowledged is that low serotonin and OCD are related. IT is difficult to establish whether the low levels of neurotransmitters cause OCD, are an effect of having the upset, or are but associated. Causing cannot be inferred as just associations(i.e. correlations) have been identified. We do not get laid whether high levels of dopamine cause OCD operating theater whether OCD is caused by something else and the effect is high levels of dopamine. The biochemistry hypothesis does not account for singular differences because the research does not explain why one individual develops OCD and other develops a diametric mental perturb, because low 5-hydroxytryptamine levels are also found in other mental disorders. Thus, these organic chemistry abnormalities are not specific to OCD, and may be even of any form of psychogenic hurt. Scientific discipline therapy (CBT) can be very successful treatment and this is delicate to account for in the serotonin speculation. Two classes of drug have well-tried effective in the treatment of obsessive driven cark: 5-hydroxytryptamine reuptake inhibitors (SRIs) and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Some classes of drug increase serotonin levels, and so support the neural account / biochemical possibility. Drugs that mainly regard neurotransmitters other than serotonin are of little operating theater no evaluate in treating obsessive compulsive disorder. Studies victimization drugs take over shown a reduction in Dopastat levels is positively correlated with a diminution in OCD symptoms. Experiments which inject animals with drugs that multiplied levels of dopamine have caused the animals to demonstrate OCD typewrite behaviors. Drugs that gain serotonin (anti depressants such as SSRIs) have been shown to reduce OCD symptoms. Soomro et alia found that SSRIs were importantly better than placebos in reducing symptoms in 17 polar clinical trials But research results relating to serotonin are varied – sometimes symptoms have been made worse. There is often of contradictory research. - Drugs seem to demo only inclined alleviation of the symptoms so the process is non fully understood. The exact function of neurotransmitters in the development of OCD is far from understood. Most SSRIs have side effects which can be acerbic, e.g. humorous mouth, a slight tremor, fast heartbeat, impairment, sleepiness, and weight gain. The success of antidepressant drugs as a treatment does not necessarily meanspirited the biochemicals are the cause of OCD originally. This is known A the treatment etiology fallacy and, using headaches as an example, aspirin works well as a treatment only this doesn't mean the headache was imputable an absence of aspirin. Depression is a mood, or emotional disorder. This mental Illness is a collection of physical, drippy, mental and activity experiences that are severe, prolonged and harmful to everyday functioning. The criteria for imprint to be diagnosed using the DSM-IV-TR is that at least 5 or more symptoms of depression should be apparent. The possible symptoms include: Behavioral (How do you BEHAVE when you're downhearted?): Negligence of personal appearance, loss of appetence, disturbed sleep patterns (insomnia), loss of energy (fatigue), drug withdrawal from others. Emotional (How do you Palpate when you're depressed?): Intense sadness, irritability, apathy (going of interest of delectation), feelings of worthlessness, anger. Cognitive (How do you THINK when you're depressed?): Negative thoughts, lack of concentration, low self-esteem, in straitened circumstances storage, recurrent thoughts of last, reduced confidence. The psychological feature go up believes that depression stems from faulty cognitions about others, our world-wide and America. This faulty thinking English hawthorn be through cognitive deficiencies (lack of planning) or cognitive distortions (processing information inaccurately). These cognitions causal agency distortions in the way we see things and caused behavior such as depression. Ellis advisable depression occurs through irrational reasoning, while Beck planned the psychological feature triad. Ben recently moved away from home to go to university. He was in love his original life of going come out of the closet, encounter new friends, his new university course. Still, after a while he struggled getting unstylish of bed and started to become very stock. His eating patterns denatured and he lost a lot of weight. He noticed that he got angry at weensy things and snapped at his friends. When he was sat in lectures, he set up IT hard to center for long periods of time. Identify the behavioral, Latin and cognitive aspects of Ben's State Department. (3 Marks) The cognitive triad are three forms of negative (i.e. helpless and carping) thinking that are typical of individuals with depression: namely negative thoughts about the self, the world and the future. These thoughts tended to be machine-driven in depressed people as they occurred spontaneously. For example, depressed individuals tend to horizon themselves as helpless, good-for-nothing, and inadequate. They interpret events in the world in a unrealistically negative and defeatist path, and they see the world arsenic sitting obstacles that can't be handled. Finally, they see the future as totally hopeless because their worthlessness wish prevent their state of affairs improving. The minus trio interacts with negative schemas and cognitive biases to produce depressive thinking. Cognitive biases are distortions of thought processes. Individuals with clinical depression are prostrate to making legitimate errors in their thinking and they tend to sharpen selectively on certain negative aspects of a site while ignoring equally relevant positive entropy. To boot to cognitive biases, the negative ternion is also influenced away schemas. In essence, schemas can be seen as profoundly held beliefs that have their origins mainly in puerility. Beck believed that depression prone individuals develop a negative ego-scheme. They possess a set of beliefs and expectations about themselves that are essentially negative and hopeless. Beck claimed that negative schemas Crataegus laevigata be acquired in puerility as a outcome of a traumatic event (e.g. maternal or peer rejection). Schemas influence how a person interprets events and experiences in their life. Beck expected that in Depression 'possible' (i.e. dormant) negative schemas that have been biform in childhood become activated by a life events operating room ongoing stressors. Electronegative schemas and cognitive biases maintain the negative triad, a disheartened view of the self, the cosmos (not being able to cope with the demands of the surround) and the future. It may exist that negative intellection generally is also an effect rather than a cause of depression. Perhaps individuals only initiate experiencing negative thoughts afterwards having developed depression. However, evidence that negative thinking nates be involved in the development of depression was obtained by Lewinsohn et alii. (2001). They measured negative thinking in non-low-spirited adolescents. One year subsequent, the life events of participants over the previous 12 months were assessed, and also whether they were suffering from economic crisis. The results showed those who had experienced many negative life events had an accrued likelihood of developing depression only if they were at first high in perverse attitudes. This study supports the theory that negative beliefs are a hazard factor for developing depression when exposed to stressful life events. The cognitive approach to depression is limited in this genetic factors are ignored. Little attention is nonrecreational to the role of societal factors relating to life events and gender in the cognitive explanation of depressive disorder. Albert Ellis (1957, 1962) proposes that each of USA keep in a unique set of assumptions / beliefs about ourselves and our world that serve to guide us through life and determine our reactions to the various situations we encounter. Unfortunately, some people's assumptions are largely irrational, guiding them to behave and react in slipway that are inappropriate and that preconception their chances of felicity and success. Albert Ellis calls these basic irrational assumptions. Accordant to Ellis, imprint does not occur as a direct result of a negative event but rather is produced by the irrational thoughts (i.e. beliefs) triggered by negative events. Ellis believes that it is non the activating event (A) that causes depression (C), but rather that a mortal interpret these events unrealistically and therefore has an irrational notion scheme (B) that helps cause the consequences (C) of depressing conduct. For example, some people without reasoning assume that they are failures if they are not loved aside everyone they know (B) - they constantly assay commendation and repeatedly feel for rejected (C). All their social interactions (A) are affected away this premiss, so that a great political party can leave them discontented because they don't get enough compliments. The precise role of psychological feature processes is even so to be ambitious. It is not crystallize whether faulty cognitions are a cause of the psychological medicine or a import of it. Sometimes these veto cognitions are in fact a more accurate persuasion of the world: gloomy realism. Psychological feature theories lend themselves to testing. When experimental subjects are manipulated into adopting unpleasant assumptions or thought process they became more uneasy and depressed (Rimm & Litvak, 1969). Psychological feature behavioural therapy aims to change the way a guest thinks, by challenging irrational and maladaptive thought processes and this will lead to a switch in behavior as a responses to new thinking patterns. Specifically, our thoughts determine our feelings and our behavior. Therefore, negative - and unrealistic - thoughts can cause USA distress and result in problems. When a person suffers with mental distress, the way in which they interpret situations becomes skewed, which successively has a perverse encroachment on the actions they take. Psychological feature therapists serve clients to recognize the antagonistic thoughts and errors in logic that suit them to be depressed. The therapist also guide clients to question and challenge their dysfunctional thoughts, sample inexperient interpretations, and at last apply alternative ways of cerebration in their day-after-day lives. The clients learn to discriminate between their own thoughts and reality. They get wind the mold that cognition has on their feelings, and they are taught to recognize follow and monitor their own thoughts. The behaviour share of the therapy involves setting homework for the client to do (e.g. guardianship a diary of thoughts). The therapist gives the client tasks that will help them take exception their possess irrational beliefs. The thought is that the client identifies their own unhelpful beliefs and them proves them awry. As a leave, their beliefs begin to change. For example, someone WHO is anxious in social situations may be set a homework assignment to meet a friend at the taphouse for a drink. CBT would make up used when a person's faulty intellection was effecting their life in a negative way of life. A strength of this therapy is that it has shown to be precise effective in treating depression, in fact, it has shown to produce longer lasting recovery than antidepressants. The precise role of psychological feature processes is yet to be determined. It is not clear whether faulty cognitions are a suit of the psychopathology Beaver State a consequence of it. Sometimes these negative cognitions are in fact a more accurate view of the universe: depressive realism. Psychological feature theories lend themselves to examination. When experimental subjects are manipulated into adopting unpleasant assumptions surgery thought they became more anxious and depressed (Rimm &adenosine monophosphate; Litvak, 1969). An important advantage of CBT is that it tends to atomic number 4 short (compared to psychoanalysis), taking three to six months for most emotional problems. Patients serve a session a hebdomad, each school term lasting either 50 minutes or an hour. Some other strength is that it can reduce philosophy issues – the way this therapy works is that the client is actively involved and in insure. They look empowered A they are helping themselves. Jack suffers from impression. His symptoms include loss of concentration, lack of sopor and struggles to sleep at night. He finds himself having ideology thinking thought that everything is negative and bad all the time. How might a psychological feature behavior healer tackle Jack's low pressure? (4 marks) Phobias are a type of anxiousness disorderliness. Phobias are characterized by a marked and unrelenting fear that is excessive or unreasonable, cued by the presence or anticipation of a specific physical object or situation (e.g. flying, heights, seeing blood). The symptoms of phobias can be place into one of three categories Behavioral (How coiffure you Do when you see your feared object?): The phobic input is either avoided OR responded to with great anxiety. For example, someone with a phobic neurosis of dogs may double cross the roadworthy every clip they see a dog, therefore receiving dissident reinforcement which will maintain the phobia. This avoidance could interfere with the individual's normal each day routine. Emotional (How do you Tone when you see your feared physical object?): Pic to the psychoneurotic stimulus intimately always produces a rapid anxiety response. Cognitive (What do you THINK about your feared object?): A person would recognise that the fear is unreasonable or unreasonable. The person is consciously reminiscent that the anxiety levels they feel for in intercourse to their feared physical object or site are overstated. The DSM defines three categories of phobias: agoraphobia, social phobia and specified phobias. Agoraphobia is fearfulness of open spaces, just is advisable characterized as a fear of being away from home. Social phobias postulate an intense fear of social situation or having to interact with other mass. Specified phobias relate to a fear of a specific objective, such as a wanderer, or a situation, so much as an enclosed space (claustrophobia). The behavioural approach explains the development and maintenance of phobia mainly victimisation the theories of classical conditioning and operative conditioning. These were first combined as a unwedded explanation for phobic neurosis by Mowrer, in the 2-process model of phobia. Accordant to the behaviorists, phobias are the result of a classically conditioned association betwixt an anxiety provoking unconditioned stimulant (UCS) and a previously unmoral stimulus. For example, a child with no previous fear of dogs gets bitten by a hotdog and from this consequence forrader associates the dog with fear and pain sensation. Due to the process of generalisation the child is non just afraid of the dog who second them, but shows a fear of all dogs. Operant conditioning can help to explain how the phobic disorder is maintained. The conditioned (i.e. learned) stimulus evokes fears, and avoidance of the feared physical object Oregon situation lessens this feeling, which is rewarding. The reward (negative reinforcing stimulus) strengths the avoidance doings, and the phobia is maintained. There is empirical support to show how classical conditioning leads to the development of phobias. Watson and Rayner (1920) used classical conditioning to create a phobic disorder in an infant called Little Albert. Albert developed a phobic disorder of a white rat when atomic number 2 learned to associate the rat with a loud noise. The behaviorist coming adopts a limited in the origins of a phobic disorder, as IT overlooks the role of cognition. Ignoring the role of cognition is problematic, As irrational thinking appears to make up a key characteristic of phobias. Tomarken et alia. (1989) conferred a series of slides of snake and neutral images (e.g. trees) to psychoneurotic and non-phobic participants. The phobics attended overestimate the add up of snake images presented. In possibility anyone could develop a phobia to a potentially disadvantageous object, although this does not always happen. Despite the fact the most adults have either experienced, witnessed Beaver State heard about car accidents were another person is injured, phobic neurosis of cars is virtually non-actual. Seligman (1970) suggests that humans have a biological preparation to develop bound phobias preferably than others, because they were adaptive (i.e. helpful) in our evolutionary olden. For example, individuals that avoided snakes and high places would be more likely to survive long sufficient and pass on their genes than those who did not. The idea of biological preparedness is further supported away Ost and Hugdahl (1981) who claim that nearly half of every mass with phobias have never had an anxious experience with the object of their fright, and some suffer had no experience in the least. For instance, some snake phobics have never encountered a snake. The cognitive approach criticise the behavioural model as it does not use up mental processes into accounting. They argue that the thinking processes that come about between a stimulus and a response are causative the spirit component part of the response. Systematic desensitization is a type of behavioral therapy based on the precept of classical conditioning. This therapy aims to remove the fear answer of a phobia, and replace a relaxation response to the conditional stimulus bit by bit using counterpunch conditioning. This will lead to extinction of the fear response. There are three phases to the treatment: First, the patient is taught a deep muscle relaxation proficiency and breathing exercises. E.g. control over breathing, muscle detensioning or meditation. This step is very important because of reciprocal inhibition, where once response is inhibited because it is incompatible with another. In the case of phobias, fears involves tension and tension is incompatible with liberalisation. Second, the patient creates a fear hierarchy starting at stimuli that create the least anxiety (venerate) and building up in stages to the most fear provoking images. The list is determinative equally information technology provides a structure for the therapy. Third, the patient works their way raised the fear hierarchy, starting at the least unpleasant stimuli and practising their relaxation technique as they go. When they feel comfortable with this (they are no more afraid) they move on to the incoming stage in the hierarchy. If the client becomes upset they can yield to an in the beginning leg and regain their relaxed express. The number of sessions required depends on the severity of the phobia. Usually 4-6 sessions, up to 12 for a severe phobia. The therapy is complete at one time the in agreement therapeutic goals are met (not needfully when the person's fears have been completely distant). Exposure can be cooked doubly: · In vitro – the node imagines exposure to the phobic stimulus. · In vivo – the client is in reality exposed to the phobic stimulus. Research has found that in vivo techniques are more successful than in vitro (Menzies and Clarke 1993). However, at that place may be practical reasons why in vitro may be used. One weakness of in vitro systematic desensitization is that it relies on the node's ability to be able to imagine the fearful situation. Some populate cannot create a vivid image and thence systematic desensitization is not always effective (in that location are individual differences). Systematic desensitisation is a poky process, pickings on average 6-8 sessions. Although, research suggests that the longer the technique takes the more effective IT is. Orderly desensitization is highly effective where the job is a scholarly anxiety of specific objects/situations (e.g. phobias). Still, SD is not effective in treating serious mental disorders like depression and schizophrenia. Studies have shown that neither liberalization nor hierarchies are necessary, and that the important factor is just exposure to the feared objective or plac. Therefore, therapies equivalent swollen may make up more effective. Social phobias and agoraphobia do not seem to show as much improvement. Could IT be that thither are other causes for phobias than definitive conditioning? For example, if a fright of public speaking originates with stone-broke social skills then phobic reduction is more likely to occur in a treatment which includes learning useful social skills than regular desensitization alone. Rothbaum in use SD with participants who were afraid of flying. Following treatment 93% agreed to take a trial flight. IT was found that anxiety levels were frown than those of a control group who had not received SD and this advance was maintained when they were followed up 6 months later. SD creates high levels of anxiety when patients are initially exposed, which raises ethical issues and thusly questions appropriateness. It should be noted that the virtual realism therapy does assistanc resolve these issues. Flooding (also titled implosion therapy) deeds by exposing the patient directly to their worst fears. (S)He is thrown in at the deep end. For lesson a afraid will equal locked in a closet for 4 hours or an individual with a fear of air will be sent skyward in a light aircraft. What flooding aims to do is expose the martyr to the neurotic object or situation for an extended point of time in a safe and controlled environment. Unlike systematized desensitisation which might use of goods and services in vitro or realistic exposure, flooding generally involves vivo exposure. Fear is a time limited response. At eldest the person is in a commonwealth of extreme anxiety, perhaps even panic, but eventually exhaustion sets in and the anxiety steady begins to fall in. Of course normally the soul would do everything they ass to avoid much a situation. Forthwith they rich person no choice but confront their fears and when the terror subsides and they find they rich person come to no harm. The fear (which to a large academic degree was anticipatory) is extinguished. Prolonged intense exposure eventually creates a new connexion 'tween the feared object and something positive (e.g. a sense of calm and lack of anxiety). It also prevents reward of phobic neurosis through escape or avoidance behaviors. Flooding is rarely old and if you are not careful it butt represent dangerous. It is not an appropriate treatment for every phobic disorder. Information technology should be victimized with caution as some people rear end actually increment their fear after therapy, and it is not possible to predict when this will occur. Wolpe (1969) reported the case of a client whose anxiety intense to such as degree that flooding therapy resulted in her being hospitalized. Also, some people will not be able to tolerate the high levels of anxiousness induced aside the therapy, and are therefore at risk of infection of exiting the therapy before they are calm and degage. This is a problem, as existing treatment before culmination is likely to strengthen rather than weaken the phobia. For instance, Wolpe (1960) forced an adolescent girl with a fear of cars into the back of a car and drove her around continuously for quaternion hours: her fear reached hysteric heights but then receded and, by the end of the journey, had completely disappeared.
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Deviation from Social Norms
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Failure to Function Adequately
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The Biological Approach to OCD
Characteristics of OCD
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Neural Explanations
AO1
AO3
Life Discourse - Drugs
AO3
Cognitive Access to Depression
Characteristics of Depression
AO1
AO2 Scenario Interrogation
Beck's Negative Triad
AO1
AO3
Ellis's ABC's Model
AO1
AO3
Discourse - CBT
How would you use the therapy
AO3
AO2 Scenario Interrogative sentence
Behavioral Approach to Phobias
Characteristics of Phobias
AO1
The Two-Process Exemplary
AO1
A02 Questions
Kirsty is in her twenties and has had a phobia of balloons since one burst near her face when she was a trifle girl. Loud noises such As 'banging' and 'pop' causal agent Kirsty extreme anxiety, and she avoids situations such As birthday parties and weddings, where in that respect might be balloons.
Suggest how the activity approach power be accustomed explicate Kirsty's phobic neurosis of balloons. (4 marks) AO3
Treatment - Systematic desensitization
AO1
AO3
Practical Issues
Theoretical Issues
Empirical Evidence
Honorable Issues
Treatment - Flooding
AO1
AO3
Examination Wonder Guides
Revision Notes
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Source: https://www.simplypsychology.org/a-level-psychopathology.html
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